Christian Nairy's Thesis Research Meeting Notes

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Discussion Items

• Talk about getting North Dakota in state tuition.
• No meeting next week, have lab work.
• Need cap files with Chains and Electric Field. Do average, valid if any of averaged values a not MVCs.
• See Wiki page - http://wiki.atmos.und.edu/doku.php?id=atmos:citation:field:capeex19:nrl_teleconference_2020_08_11 for TITAN plots.
• Put cplot file on Wiki. Put PHIPS images on Wiki page.

Attending: David Delene, Andy Detwiler, Christian Nairy.

• Need Time on Videos. See about adding with GoPro Software.

• David Delene:
  • Email - Drew Fitzgerald (Undergraduate Student) to work on time stamped video.
    • Talked with Drew August 25 to get started on working with vidoe, Will take awhile.
  • Email - Jeff Stith and see if there is a later Chain Ag paper.
    • Email Jeff on August 25 using ucar email to ask about chain-link particles.

Attending: David Delene, Andy Detwiler, Christian Nairy.

• Commit to ADPAA repository. Either checked out read only version (binary version). Look at using Develop method (source code). Look at $ADPAA_DIR/src/install file. Developer Version Source Code Download of Package (Read/Write Access)

mkdir ${HOME}/ADPAA && cd ${HOME}/ADPAA
svn checkout svn+ssh://name@svn.code.sf.net/p/adpaa/code/trunk/src
Where 'name' is your developer's username on SourceForge.

• You have Electric Field having in process_all_capeex19 (Field project processing script).

• On July 25, we have three classification files (Fritz Waitz, Shawn Wagner, Christian Nairy). Will compare results.

• Andy talk about August 3, first flight. Shows presentation file. 15:03 segment Ex small < 0.3 kV. When close to core, get increase above 1 kV upto 4 kV (15:34 to 15:36). Not much electric field far from echo cores.

• PHIPS Images Discussion on July 25, 2019

Emma Had The Following Comments

images 2-6,9-10 Frozen Droplet -> Droplet (these are liquid droplets that have broken in the inlet)
images 7-8,14 Empty -> Not Classified (out of focus liquid drops), out of focus particles don’t have to be classified
images 11-12,18,21,28,30,34 Irregular -> droplet (shattered water droplet)

After image 42 shattered water droplets were not anymore classified, which is fine.

image 137,139,142-145,148,149,151,152,156 Not classified -> shatteringimage 138,140,141,146,147,153-155 Not classified -> irregular
image 150 Not classified -> plate, aggregate

Here on I checked only classified particles
image 169,178 Irregular -> Shattering
image 326 Irregular, aggregate -> column, sublimating (this is subjective)
image 383 Sectored plate -> Side plane
image 410 -> this plate is not rimed but has pockets. Therefore, I would not label it as pristine too
image 478 Irregular, pristine -> Like plate stacked with column… difficult but not pristine
image 479 also not pristine
image 543 Irregular -> Plate

* 2-6, 9-10 - Is Frozen Droplet

• David Delene:
  • Fix Zotero on Ice computer.
• Christian Nairy
  • Commit all changes to ADPAA reposition.
  • Make Lrose data for July 31, 2015. With flight tracking.
  • Rview Animations
  • Add links for discussion to Wiki page here.

Attending: David Delene, Andy Detwiler, Christian Nairy.

• Christian is starting to classify PHIPS images from second flight on August 2
• I talked with John Nordlie, and he is going to push Automatic classification as a Senior Project for class teaching computer science.
• Finished all changes to ADPAA reposition.

• David Delene:
  • Need to send John a write up.
  • Need to send email about comparison to everyone.
  • Email out Jeff's Papers
• Christian
  • Break out some really good long chain images.

Attending: David Delene, Jeff Stith, Christian Nairy.

Jeff - Talked about TIMM field project, should check this out. Jeff - Found frozen droplets at top, because they are light. Jeff - Lots of aggregates have individual images. Jeff - Look at Rosemount Icing Detector. Jeff - Look at Jim D.'s paper, and ideas of electric field. Can you relate types of electric field to aggregate type.

Christian - Looked at lightning data, kind of goes with reflectivity. Christian - AGU Presentation.

Discussed: Compare and contrast August 2 and First August 3 flight.

• David Delene
  • Ask about AGU Presentation, public release.
  • Ask Jerry about splitting up cases, August 2 second flight and August 3 first flight.

Meeting Next week at same time.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy

• Good to have Jeff Stith join last week.
• PHIPS maybe on Thursday 9 am this week or next week.
• Do Case Study August 3 - Do Case Study Put in Presentation Format / Detail Wiki.
• Should shot to have draft AGU presentation for Tuesday 6 October.
• Committee meeting in December get topic proposal approved. See Nick's for example Topic Proposal: September 4, 2018 [DOCX, PDF) http://aerosol.atmos.und.edu/Gapp_TropicProposal_20180903.docx and http://aerosol.atmos.und.edu/Gapp_NRL_Seminar_20180810.pdf
• Could maybe help out with Tethered Balloon flight (Sunday O.K., early better).
• Question about Research Aircraft Flight in cores of storm.

• David
  • See if Jim (James) Dye (dye@ucar.edu) could join sometime. Maybe next week.
  • Need to get CIDD working. Need to use Docker version of CIDD on aircraft.

• Christian
  • Send draft start on presentation by end of day next Monday. Use for AGU and NRL teleconference presentation and 3 minute Graduate School presentation (discussed via email).
  • Try stuff out via Docker on Aircraft.

Meet next week same time.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Shawn Wagner, Fritz Waitz, Emmal Jarvinen, Jeff Schmidt.

• Fritz files - classification_comparison
• classification - July 25
• Fritz and Christian
• What to look at factor parameter, complex parameter.
• Talked about flower pattern formed at temperature/humidity. Plate Brain Swanson, University of Washington. Just published paper.
• Jerry - Ask about new nucleation site versus aggregation. Hint is orientation.
• Discussed Crystal Morphology, Jerry's Slide 8 discussion.
• Emma had to leave, Fritz Slides
• Maybe different version of software. 300 agree, 600 disagreeing.
  • Like 50/50 agreeing and disagreeing.
  • Talked about Side Planes, between -20 to -25 C, maybe higher humidifies. Planes that grow from the center, stacked on each other.
  • Skeletal Plates - Fritz ask about what is? Clear looking, has patterns. Sub-class of plates. Maybe hint at where it formed.
  • Plate vs Column - Not clear which perspective you looking at.
  • Camera images - 120 degrees rotation clockwise (left), around the x-y axis.
  • New class for small irregular.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy

• Talked about creating an attributes file to
• Talked about presentation slides.
• See about getting the Titan Cell core latitude / Longitude location.
• Look at GOES-R data for the case.

• David
  • Work on CIDD
  • Work on example attribution file.
• Christian working on presentation.

Meeting Next week at same time.

Attending: David Delene, Andy Detwiler, Christian Nairy.

• Review Christian's plots for AGU/etc presentation.
  • Has distance from storm core. Cores are from Titan cells.
  • Look at image together for distance from core.
  • Look at images with high magnitude positive and negative field.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• Lrose likely not working on Aircraft, looks like all the MDVs are available for 2015 and 2019.
• CapeEx19 Tuesday Meeting - Tethered flight on Sunday.
• VNC works for Christian on Calgary.
• Go over presentation. Get stuff related to aircraft done first.

• David
  • Need to check out running lrose on Aircraft via Docker.
  • See about getting Libreoffice install on aircraft, flight note data.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy.

• The bars plots of the electric field. To plot, really to use Earth relative frame. Need write converting code to take from aircraft frame to Earth frame of reference.

• First, task is to use vertical electrics in presentation.
• See if we can get Lucas to do coding to translate to Earth frame of reference.
• Post White Paper.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• CAPE2015 radar data from Shawn's paper. July 31, 2015 was in trailing stratus convection. Rain down to the ground.
• AGU - Poster Outline - Imuze
• Updated lightning data.
• Work on making cross-section plots to overlay on plots.
• Make 4 panel plots segments, Electric Field with cross section overlay. Radar with core direction and wind direction. Conceptual plot. Plot with particle images and/or particle presentation.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• Discussed AGU Poster - Good start on poster.
• Discussed AGU EF Presentation
  • Present one leg and then summarize other legs. Focus August 3, first flight.
  • Try out video uploaded.

Meet Next Week at 3 pm.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• Discussed AGU Poster - New version.
• Electric Field. Make presentation. Thesis on Case Study on August 3, first flight.

Meet Next Week at 3 pm.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• Discuss AGU Presentation. Check if you can upload more than once.
• Listen to the presentation.
  • Note that electric field measurements are pretty unique.
  • Probably can be less on introduction
  • Maybe put reference in slides for poster so doesn't take so much time.
  • Like to call aircraft “North Dakota Citation Research Aircraft”.
  • Need to include partership with Navy Research Lab (NRL), not just WMI and UND. Also, need Hugh Christian from University of Alabama in Huntsville.
  • Try to only talk about what in put, talk about electric field plot not particles discussed later.
  • Cplot plots lets you do a offset so you could of adjusted the vertical wind data.

• Send me the Video and I'll upload to my Website so all team can access, put at reference slide the poster reference.
• Try only talk about the slide you are discussing not stuff later on.

• Andy - Put PHIPS image on Background slide.

Meet same time next week.

Good comments, Dave. Christian, in case you aren't aware, Hugh Christian was technical lead on the GLS satellite instrument development project. He's quite an important guy in the atmospheric electricity world.I hope he comes to your session. - Andy

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

• Talked about videos and poster for AGU presentation.
• Need electric field relative to ground so we can look at turn data.
• Andy not a big change in crystal type when electric field.

• David - Get SODA GNU working via a ADPAA script.
• Christian - Looking at more particle image and electric field.

Same Time Next Week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

* Christian's Session - 5:30 am PT and 8:30 am CT. * Post Time - 11-1 am ET, 12 am CT on December 14. * Look at the GOES16 lightning data.

Meet next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler.

* Ask about permission numbers for Thesis.

* Christian ready. Got email from chair. Everything is straight forward, 3 minutes and then questions. Today everyone had time for questions. Andy watch some of the videos. * Talk about +IC lightning. Some can detect. * Christian has been working on lightning data and scripts. Also, looking at August 2 flight. Nothing sticks out. * Andy asked about poster session. Has chat room all set. Christian needs to setup Zoom for Monday.

* Work on the Topic Proposal.

Meet next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler, Hugh Christian.

• Christian - Gave overview of project.
• Hugh - Indicated that not lightning, Too slow. Lightning is less than 1 second.
• Hugh - Interesting data set. Christian gave discussion of slides.
• Hugh - This would be interesting.
• Christian - Wants to get NLMA data.
• Hugh - Said to look for lightning strikes to see how short they are.
• Christian - Andrew and Christian grew up on same street.
• GML - Andy commented that lots of people are using the data.

• Send Nick's paper to Hugh.
• Christian - Setup Zoom meeting for next week, including monthly meeting. We should ask NRL people to come.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Holidays Update.
• Working on Topic Proposal.
  • Do you want a dead-line for topic proposal. Talk about title. Adjusted it.
  • Did we have electric fields in 2015? No
  • Did we sample up this high with electric fields, maybe back in 2020.
  • Invite Jim Dye and Hugh.
  • Topic Proposal - 1 week get me a draft. Have committee meeting to approve Topical 5-6 weeks.
  • What about LMA data, Christian working on getting LMA data.
• Make Wiki page about LMA data.
• Any wiki page about electric field vector. Will replace bad tracks with new ones.
• Andy will look at data more. Looking at the data more.

Talk next week, same time and place.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Sounds like Christian will work with NRL this summer.
• Jerry will send disk with MRC data. Ka-band will get.
• Christian - Statistical plots.

• David - Reprocessing first flight on August 3.

Meet next week and same time.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Talked about software to look at lightning data.
• We have the LMA data on Aircraft server.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Numerical Weather Prediction
• Talked about UAE meeting.
• Got comments from Andy from Topic Proposal, Need to state an objective that is testable.
• Coming back in February.
• Go over paragraph styles.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Andy got plotting of LMA data working.
• Talked about theory agg., where it occurs.
• Andy, do you want to look at LMA data?

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Andy - Tell me where other formatted data (CF formatted Data). Christian send where CF data is located.
• David - Talked about aplot
• Christian - Question about topic proposal. David gave overview of what to put on topic proposal.

• Update /usr/local/ADPAA stuff on Aircraft.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Christian - Talked about radar data for Angles program.
  • UF worked.
• Will keep trying different radar formats.
• Been reclassifing particles for the PHIPS images.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

• Interested in icing work and field project.
• Send me new version of topic proposal.
• Went over slides, revise for next week.

Same time next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

• Computer Issues - Ordered new laptop hard drive and battery.
• Topic Proposal - Send soon.
• MetTrailer - Some interest in drones. Shown you the Grafana site.
• Talked about icing tunnel worked.
• Talked to Nick about cloud drop. > 0.005 g/m^3 Nev Total water for clouds.
• Talk about plots, spectrum look the same each length.
• WRF run. AWS server.

• Work on AWS Cloud Wiki, see that instance works for you. Figure out how to get free IAM AWS account and how we can give access to start and stop it.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

• Got your laptop fixed.
• Chain Agg. Video.
• Plots of August 3 Aggregates.
• Asked about topic proposal.
• Talked about UAE proposal.
• Talked about Nev. Processing for August 3.
• Some Florida in don't have much liquid water. We have microwave radiometer data. Have to ask NRL.

Meet at 3 pm to go over topic proposal and work on code.

Meet next week. Off line for 3-weeks.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

• Look at Chains / PHIPHS images versus distance.
• Paper Questions
  • What experimental/observation evident is there to damage of nose cones from cirrus clouds?
  • Do they consider these 500 to 1000 um chain like particles in the cone impact models?
  • What the best reference that the particles don't melt across the shock wave?
  • Is there a reference for not considering particles < 50 um liquid equivalent diameter.
• List paper and main conclusion.
• How much do these large chain particle exist. How frequent. Do they exist in all cirrus cloud anvils.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

• Talked about AWS.
• Talked about paper review.
  • Papers indicate (depends size and density). In shockwave, not very big, Do they melt of vaporization. Crystal are likely to break apart, been some modeling study. Boundary lary, depends on angle of attach.
• Work on August 3 processing.
• NRL is waiting on the state.
• Next week work together to fix TAS for August 3.
• Talk about size of the chains aggs. that you found. There text file you can get size information from.

Next time next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (No)

* Python script to convert *.txt PHIPHS. * Use of tmux for ssh. * Need code to get ice/snow mass. Talked about how to do this. Write python code read two data files, one spectrum and one with Nev. Probe data, create a NASA/UND files with ice and snow mass based on equal density and snow. Include the concentration up to 150 um and concentration > 150 um. * August 3 reprocessing.

* Discussion

• Comparison between aircraft and model. Issue with model ice fall out.
• Talked about Topic Proposal, revising the method section.
• Been working on PHIPS particle-by-particle data. Making 1Hz files.

Meet again next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

* Discussion

• NRL half the summer.
• Talked about movement of storm, via radar observations.
• Talked about WRF August 3 run.
• Topic proposal review.

Meet again next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes), Jeff Stith (Yes)

* Review Slide

 Jeff - Question - What PHIPS data do we have?  

* Jeff Comments on images, Have specific habits. Look at individual crystal.

• How many crystal in chain.
• Linear type.
• More maritime, weaker updrafts, here.

* Distance from core, nothing much with distance. * Talked about issue of classification. * Andy - Where do these agg. occurs.

• Habits would all be the same, if agg low in the cloud level.
• Lots of places where there is not active convective, small part, like 5%.

* Jeff, look across the Anvil, (Fifth Leg) and look at electric field. Also look at size versus electric field. * Jeff - ask about lines in CIP, how are they related to charge on aircraft measured by the electric field measurements. * David - Better to put ore of the plots together, Electric field and cloud physics.

* Try to order things so you don't have to say “I'll discuss later”. Saves time to discuss things as needed. * Should probably show what Confidence number mean before showing the results.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

===== Discussion ===== anvil * Discussion of classification. Tropical, continental. * Topic proposal - Talked about. Focus on Question - Does aggregation occur in anvil. * Show where PHIPS images are found. * Turn off AWS, can run on Calgary. Have working for Michael. * Talked about WRF modeling. Could use to illustrate reason for doing this work, models don't get enough anvil ice.

* Get committee meeting setup for May.

Talk next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

* Topic proposal - State characteristics, * Talked about vertical electric field is being higher than the horizontal. * ER-2 NASA, how do they measure electric field. * Write display for images, PHIPS or CIP. Using aplot/threads. * 20 minutes slides topic proposal, question/comments about topic. Slide at end, current plan. If you want, some results on latest research.

* Get paper on ER. * Get started on Python CIP display code.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

• PHIPS Images Times, August 3, 2019: Particle Number 17146, CSV file time 17:24:17 UTC, Incorrect 17:37:29 UTC. Images times are not right in ${ADPAA_DIR}/src/script_python/Combine_PHIPS_Images.py

• David Delene
  • Look back at emails to see how times are calculated. Put into the code documentation and figure out the problem.
  • Christian Nairy
    • Look at first flight leg, look at first enter cloud, compare times from PHIPS (CSV files data) first images to CIP data (maybe also Nev. Probe). Make sure times are +/- 1 second or see the difference.
    • How does the PHIPS sample volume compare to the CIP? Look at the PHIPS instrument paper for direct result or at least sample volume.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

* Do classification of IMPACTS flight. * Submitted data set for LDM to NCAR field catalog. * Working on tripping paper. * Andy - How to tell different aggregates and chain aggregates. * Need to make committee.

* Work on revising Thesis into two papers. One introduction to lab paper. * Work on AGU presentation.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler (Yes)

• Discuss papers, at 12,500 words, like 8,000 - 9,000 with figures. Will send.
• Get Nicholas Camp - PHIPS classification.
• January 29, 2022 (Christian did this, did beginning (707) of the flight) and Chicago storm,
• Ground slow electric field mills may be ok for slow measurements.
• Bob Black, yes talked to.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Talk about sup. to paper. Introduction to sup.
• Send me talk, the presentation.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Working paper, going to the writing center. Doing revision.
• Talk about measuring charge on ice crystals. Discuss the difference between electric and magnetic effects on ice crystals.
• Millikan Oil drop.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Working on paper.
• Tabled about table 1 redoing.
• Talked about January 15, 2023 case.
• Get CPI software identification working and classify the CPI January 15.
• Get me new version by end of day on Friday.
• Talked about the Acknowledgment.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• FAIR Conference
• Talk about Figure 9/10 from paper. Basically done with figure.
• Move some stuff from results to discussion, will send to Emma and Martin.
• Work on CPI image code, making progress.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• Conrad Slad will start Monday, could classify images.
• Christian has classified several 1000s CPI images.
• Working on poster on January 15, 2023 data, one cloud pass.
• Compare depols ratios ka-band and other radars.
  • Look at 2-DS aspect ratio,
• Have another possible area with chains, shown in the radar.
• Lots of chains. There are long, whole field of view, clear see that they are chains.
• CapeEx19 paper is on whole, till get done with Science Team Meeting. Goal is get paper to Emma and Martin by end of October.
• CPI image enhancements.
  • Check if there is more post processing that can be done with the CPI images.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy, Andy Detwiler

• ICCP Poster - Segregating Chain without AI.
  • Getting bullet (BR) and slide plains.
  • Compactness, amount of empty area in fast circle.
  • Have three legs to compare.
  • What about a combined approach?
    • End Goal. Get us to science.
  • Fuzzy logic. Andy will send an example paper.
  • Get model generated agg.
• CapeEx19 - Got Images back from Emma, got better image, better contrast.
  • What can I do to help on paper.
  • Break-up paper stuff in step.
    • Detail reply to KIT comments.
    • 1.) Detail replies comments. (easy)
    • 2.)
    • Will make a list.
• Discussion - ICCP Cloud Probe workshop.
• IMPACTS STM - Christian.

Meeting again next Friday.

talks_and_presentations_20241220.pdf | Nairy Presentations/Posters & Co-Authored Presentations/Posters}}

Attending: David Delene, Andy Detwiler, Christian Nairy.

• NASA Proposal - Only one case of co-located CPL and P3 data, which is January 19, 2022, 12:31-12:52
  • CPL is 532 nm, 1064 nm wavelength. Collins is 950 and 1550 nm wavelength.
  • Could talk with Collins Aerospace to see about their lidar data on August 2, and August 3, 2019.
  • Work on White paper, with questions.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy.

* CapeEx19 Paper is being review by Emman and Martin second time. Has updated Paul. * GRL Paper on IMPACT observations of chain Agg. Next focus paper. * Working on NASA Proposal. * AMS poster. * Working on NASA proposal, due next Friday.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy.

* NASA proposal was submitted. Christian forward, my email from Monday to John/Joe. Talked about the proposal ideas. * Christian has AMS talk approved. Cloud physics.

• GRL paper - Letter is shorter paper, we are observing chain-aggs in Winter storms.

* Current, CapeEx19 paper, have not hear from Jerry, last heard since year. Pre-print of paper. Data Collection is getting done, Meta data is revised. Will call John Wold to see about storage, 27 GB.

• Preprint - arXiv, Arxiv.org. Use https://arxiv.org/list/physics.ao-ph/recent
• Check with Journal to make sure pre-print is not an issue.
• Andy - Copy of paper, Working on aerodynamic and electric forces on clouds. Orientation would change fast, count lightning. Calculate when aggregation is strong enough, paper in 1980. Two items, how cold can and still have sufficient aggregation. At warmer temperature, change would move easier, colder temperature can't move so faster. Orientation of ice crystal detected by polarmetric radar, from Colorado radar Chandra@colostate.edu.
• Getting progress in lab setup. Christian connected high voltage supply to plates and it worked to charge. Need to make a measurement. Need something to move one plate so you can get different field strength.
• Look for rubber mat and rubber covers. Look for something to move the plate. Wood works will.

• Meet same time next week.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy.

• AMS presentation.
• Make recording and send Andy. Do a talk on Monday later day with David at AMS.

Attending: David Delene, Christian Nairy.

• GRL paper, keep short, look for formal to convert to printed pagers.
• Talk about motivation for GRL paper. Need some type of good modification paper at the start.
• Add in your 4-5 figures.
• AMS Review
  • Christian talk, person to talk about count mono-crystals.